Military coups in Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger have brought an end to the long-standing influence of former colonizer France in the region. The most recent country to break ties with France is Chad, which has ordered Paris to end its military presence. As France withdraws, Russia is stepping in.

As a result, Europe feels its losing a key region essential for combating jihadism and controlling migration. What lessons can be learned from Europe’s failed involvement? What are the interests and strategies of external actors in the Sahel? What are the humanitarian consequences? And, finally, what does the future hold for the region?